The Fascinating History and Complex Tariff Classification of Coffee
Where Did Coffee Originate? Tracing Its Global Spread and Consumption
Legends say a 9th-century Ethiopian goat herder named Kaldi discovered coffee after noticing his goats became more energetic from eating coffee berries. Historic records suggest the Sufis of Yemen were the first to roast coffee seeds to create the beverage we recognize today, using it to stay awake for religious ceremonies in the 15th century. Early uses of coffee in Northeast Africa also included crushing beans into animal fat for energy or fermenting them into wine. From its initial use as a food and medicinal ingredient, coffee evolved into a popular beverage that spread from the Ottoman Empire to Europe, first appearing in coffee houses in the 15th century.
How did coffee influence the Enlightenment and social change in Europe?
Coffee played a key role in intellectual and social life, especially in Europe. By the 15th century, coffeehouses, or “qahveh khaneh,” appeared in the Arabian Peninsula as hubs for games, music, and political debate. By the 17th century, this concept reached Europe. In Britain, coffeehouses became “penny universities,” where intellectuals, businessmen, and scholars discussed politics, business, and ideas. Philosophers like Kant and Voltaire were known coffee drinkers. Some scholars, including Jurgen Habermas, argue that the Enlightenment—an era of rational thought and scientific discovery—might not have happened without coffee.
What is the primary active ingredient in coffee, and how does it affect the human body?
The main active ingredient in coffee is caffeine, the most widely consumed psychoactive drug globally. When consumed, caffeine is absorbed into the bloodstream via the intestine and affects the nervous system. Caffeine’s chemical structure is similar to adenosine, a natural bodily substance that slows down the sympathetic nervous system, reducing heart rate and inducing drowsiness. By binding to adenosine receptors, caffeine blocks these effects, leading to increased blood pressure, stimulated brain activity, suppressed hunger, enhanced alertness, improved mood, and reduced fatigue. These effects typically last between 15 minutes and two hours, though residual effects can persist longer. Caffeine is also used by athletes as a performance-enhancing supplement.
What are the recommended consumption limits for coffee, and what are the potential health benefits and risks?
For healthy adults, the recommended maximum caffeine intake is 400 milligrams per day, equivalent to about four or five cups of coffee. Exceeding this limit can lead to side effects such as insomnia, nervousness, anxiety, tachycardia (rapid heart rate), stomach discomfort, nausea, and headaches. Rapid consumption of around 1,200 milligrams of caffeine (about 12 cups) can lead to toxic effects like seizures. Individual sensitivity to caffeine can vary genetically. However, when consumed in moderation, coffee offers several health benefits. It is associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, some cancers, and Parkinson’s disease. These benefits are not solely due to caffeine; coffee also contains beneficial substances like chlorogenic acid, a potent antioxidant.
How did coffee contribute to colonialism and the global economy?
Coffee played a significant role in early colonialism and the global economy. As European demand grew, colonial powers established plantations overseas. The Dutch cultivated coffee in Sri Lanka, Java, Sumatra, Timor, and Dutch Guiana. The English grew it in the Caribbean, Sri Lanka, and India. The French introduced it to the Caribbean and Africa. The Portuguese brought coffee to Brazil, parts of Indonesia, and their African colonies.
By the late 18th century, French Haiti became the world’s leading coffee exporter, relying heavily on enslaved African labor. By the early 1800s, Brazil produced a third of the world’s coffee, also using African slaves. This expansion fuelled the transatlantic slave trade. Over time, coffee grew into a multi-billion dollar industry, now valued at $90 billion annually.
How did coffee become the preferred hot drink in the United States over tea?
In the American colonies, both coffee and tea were popular during the 17th century. However, coffee gained prominence as the hot drink of choice due to political tensions with Britain. The Stamp Act of 1765 and subsequent taxes on imported English goods, particularly tea, sparked protests and boycotts. The Boston Tea Party in 1773, where colonists famously dumped tea cargoes into the harbor, solidified a lasting affection for coffee. Drinking coffee, which could be easily imported from French and Dutch colonies in the Caribbean, became viewed as a patriotic act, while drinking tea was seen as un-American. This shift dramatically marked coffee’s rise to prominence in the United States.
What are the main types of coffee beans and their characteristics?
There are many types of coffee beans, but the most common and widely consumed are Arabica and Robusta.
- Arabica: Native to the mountains of Ethiopia, Arabica is believed to be the first cultivated coffee type. It accounts for about 60% of global coffee consumption and is primarily grown in Latin America. Arabica beans are known for their sweet, fruity, and slightly acidic taste. However, Arabica plants take about seven years to fully mature, making them pricier.
- Robusta: Native to the lowland forests of West Africa, Robusta is more recently developed. It is commonly found in supermarkets and used for espressos due to its high caffeine concentration, which also gives it a more bitter taste. Robusta is primarily grown in Africa and Indonesia.
- Liberica and Excelsa: These types are grown in specific parts of Southeast Asia, making up a small percentage of global coffee consumption and are generally pricier than Arabica and Robusta.
All these varieties thrive in “The Coffee Bean Belt,” a region between the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer with ideal climates for coffee cultivation.
How is coffee classified for tariff purposes, and what constitutes a “substantial transformation”?
For tariff classification, coffee products are categorized based on their processing level, from least to most processed. This includes:
- Unroasted coffee: Whether or not decaffeinated, and further broken down by Arabica/non-Arabica and organic certification.
- Roasted coffee: Whether or not decaffeinated, with further distinctions based on container weight (retail vs. bulk) and organic certification.
- Coffee extracts, essences, and concentrates: Such as instant coffee (liquid or powder, flavored or unflavored, decaffeinated or not, and packaged for retail sale or not).
- Preparations with a coffee base: These include products with added ingredients like sugar or milk, and can be subject to specific sugar quotas.
- Coffee substitutes: Roasted chicory and other roasted products intended to replace or imitate coffee, derived from various plants like sugar beet, carrots, or cereals, but do not contain coffee.
- Ready-to-drink coffee beverages: Such as pre-packaged cold brews or lattes, which are classified as beverages under Chapter 22 of the tariff schedule.
Regarding country of origin, a “substantial transformation” in processing can change a product’s origin. The general rule of thumb is that roasting coffee is considered a substantial transformation, while decaffeinating it is not. This means green coffee beans from one country, if roasted in another, may claim the roasting country as their origin. Interestingly, since 1996, roasted and imported coffee and coffee preparations are exempt from country of origin marking requirements in the U.S., though the correct country of origin still needs to be determined.
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